Definition :
Fats are also known as lipids. A lipid is a substance that is poorly soluble or insoluble in water. The term ‘dietary fat’ encompasses many different types of fat. Over 90% of dietary fats are called triacylglycerols or triglycerides. Other dietary fats include cholesterol.
Triacylglycerols contain three fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule. Fatty acids vary according to their length, which is composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms joined together to form a hydrocarbon chain. The number of double bonds that occur between the carbon molecules also varies. The chemical structure of each type of fatty acid determines its physical characteristics and its nutritional and physiological function. Regardless of the type of fatty acid present, all triacylglycerols provide 9 kcal (37 KJ) per gram; this makes fat the most concentrated source of energy in the diet. Fatty acids should provide no more than 30–35% of dietary energy or approximately no more than 70 g a day for women and no more than 90 g a day for men.
Typical high sources of fat in the diet include cooking fats and oils, fried food, fatty and processed meats. These should form a very small part of the diet. Care should be taken to reduce fried foods; avoid adding fats and oils during cooking; to grill food, which allows fat to drip out; and to choose lean meats and low fat dairy products. A product is thought to be low in fat if it contains less than 3 g fat per 100 g and high in fat if it contains more than 20 g fat per 100 g or 21 g fat per serving.
Purpose :
Some types of fatty acids are essential nutrients. They must be consumed in the diet for the body to function properly. Fats form the structure of cell membranes, they are involved in the transport, breakdown and excretion of cholesterol and they are the building blocks for many important compounds such as hormones, blood clotting agents, and compounds involved in immune and inflammatory responses. Fats also transport fat soluble vitamins and antioxidants; provide the body with insulation and form a protective layer around organs; are a structural component of the brain and nervous system; and provide a reserve supply of energy in the form of adipose tissue (body fat). Excess amounts of adipose tissue defines obesity and may lead to health problems such as diabetes, cancer and heart disease.
Description :
Saturated fatty acids
Saturated fatty acids have a hydrocarbon chain where each carbon atom carries its maximum number of hydrogen atoms except for the end carboxyl group and they do not have any double bonds. The molecules are straight, allowing them to pack closely together. For this reason, they are solid at room temperature with a high melting point. Saturated fatty acids are chemically stable both within the body and in food.
Saturated fatty acids are named according to the number of carbon atoms they contain. Each one has a common name (e.g., stearic acid), a systematic name (e.g., octadecanoic acid because stearic acid has 18 carbon atoms), and a notational name (e.g., 18:0 as stearic acid has 18 carbon atoms but no double bonds).
Animal products such as meat fat, dripping, lard, milk, butter, cheese and cream are the primary sources of saturated fatty acids. Most plant products have a lower amount of saturated fat with the exception of coconut and palm oil.
SATURATED FATTY ACIDS AND HEALTH. Saturated fatty acids increase the body’s levels of cholesterol, including low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. LDL cholesterol is commonly known as ‘bad’ cholesterol. High levels of LDL cholesterol in the blood increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. LDL cholesterol transports excess cholesterol through the bloodstream where it can become deposited in the walls of the arteries and form a hardened plaque. This is called atherosclerosis. This thickening of the artery walls reduces the flow of blood supplying the heart, brain, and other organs. A heart attack or stroke is caused by a blood clot blocking these narrowed arteries. Saturated fatty acids also contribute to production of these blood clots as they are converted into substances that can increase the stickiness of the blood and increase its tendency to clot. For this reason dietary guidelines recommend that no more than 10% of dietary energy should come from saturated fatty acids. This means that on a daily basis approximately no more than 22 g saturated fat should be consumed by a woman consuming 2,000 calories a day and no
more than 28 g saturated fat should be consumed by a
man consuming 2,500 calories a day. A product is
considered low in saturated fat if it contains less than
1.5 g per 100 g and high in saturated fat if it contains
more than 5 g of fat per 100 g.
Monounsaturated fatty acids
Monounsaturated fatty acids have a hydrocarbon
chain that contains one unsaturated carbon bond that
is not fully saturated with hydrogen atoms. Instead, it
has a double bond to the adjoining carbon atom.
Double bonds are either in a cis or trans formation.
In the cis formation the hydrogen atoms bonded to the
carbon atoms in the double bond are positioned on
the same side of the double bond. This creates a kink in
the hydrocarbon chain. There is also a free electron or
slightly negative charge surrounding the double bond
causing them to repel each other. The molecules are
not packed closely together and become liquid (oil) at
room temperature. In the trans formation the hydrogen atoms are on opposite sides of the carbon-carbon
double bond resembling the characteristics of a saturated fatty acid. There is less kinking of the hydrocarbon chain and the fat is more solid at room
temperature. trans bonds are rarely seen in nature.
Monounsaturated fatty acids are named according to the number of carbons they contain and the
position of their double bond. Like saturated fatty
acids, they each have a common name, a systematic
name, and a notational name. Fatty acids with double
bonds in the ninth position are sometimes called n-9s
or omega-9s.
The most concentrated sources of monounsaturated fatty acids in the diet are olive oil and rapeseed
oil. They are present in many other foods including
nuts and seeds, avocados, eggs, fish and meat fat.
MONOUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS AND HEALTH.
Monounsaturated fatty acids reduce the level of total
and LDL cholesterol. It also has a significant effect on
increasing and maintaining the body’s level of high
density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. HDL cholesterol is commonly known as ‘good’ cholesterol
because it removes cholesterol from the blood transferring it to body tissues where it is used to make
hormones and other substances the body needs.
Therefore, higher levels of HDL cholesterol are associated with a reduction in the risk of cardiovascular
disease. Between 10–20% of dietary energy should
come from monounsaturated fat.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids
Polyunsaturated fatty acids have a hydrocarbon
chain containing two or more double bonds not fully
saturated with hydrogen atoms. The double bonds
may either be in the cis or trans formation. The majority of naturally occurring polyunsaturated fats are in
the cis form. In this form the hydrogen atoms bonded
to the carbon atoms in the double bond are positioned
on the same side of the double bond. This creates a
kink in the hydrocarbon chain. There is also a free
electron or slightly negative charge surrounding the
double bond causing them to repel each other. The
molecules are not packed closely together and become
liquid (oil) at room temperature. The presence of one
or more double bonds with free electrons and a negative charge makes them unstable molecules ready to react with other chemicals. Polyunsaturated fatty
acids are susceptible to chemical changes or oxidation
within food leading to cell damage in the body.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids are named similar to
other fatty acids. They have a common name, a systematic name, and a notational name. Fatty acids with
double bonds starting in the sixth position are commonly known as n-6s or omega-6s.
POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS AND HEALTH.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids are divided into two
groups, omega-6s and omega-3s. There is one essential
fatty acid in each of these groups from which all other
fatty acids can be made in the human body. These
essential fatty acids cannot be made by the body and
must be obtained from the diet. They are a necessary
component of the diet; without them deficiency symptoms and poor health would result. Linoleic acid
(omega-6) and alpha-linolenic acid (omega-3) are the
essential fatty acids. Linoleic acid should provide at
least 1% of dietary energy and alpha-linoleic acid
should provide 0.2% dietary energy. These essential
fatty acids are converted into longer chain fatty acids
that form important substances in the body such as
hormones, blood clotting agents, and compounds
involved in immune and inflammatory responses.
These long chain fatty acids are not technically
essential, but they have an important role in the body.
Examples of long chain fatty acids include arachadonic acid (AA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and
docosahexanoic acid (DHA). Long chain omega-3 fatty acids become essential if there is insufficient
linoleic and aplha-linolenic acid available in the diet.
These fats play a significant role in development of the
brain, nervous system, and retina in fetal development
and early life.
OMEGA-6. The most concentrated sources of
omega-6 in the diet is vegetable oils, such as sunflower,
safflower, corn, cottonseed, canola, and soya oils. They
are also present in plant seeds, nuts, vegetables, fruit
and cereals. In addition to being a source of linoleic
acid, omega-6s have been shown to have a lowering
effect on both LDL and HDL cholesterol. However,
there are health concerns with excessive omega-6
intakes. Omega-6 fats are susceptible to oxidation
within the body and may contribute to tissue damage
that leads to atherosclerosis and cancer. Omega-6 fats
should contribute no more than 10% of dietary energy.
Antioxidant nutrients such as vitamin E are required to
reduce this oxidation with higher intakes of omega-6
fats. Omega-6s compete with the more beneficial
omega-3 fatty acids, so it is recommended that the
omega-6:omega-3 ratio is reduced to 4:1.
OMEGA-3. Short chain omega-3 fats are found in
flaxseed or linseed oil, walnut oil, canola oil, and
rapeseed oil. The best sources of long chain omega-3s
are fish and fish oil.
Evidence suggests that consuming long chain
omega-3 fats has cardiovascular health benefits. This
believed to be the result of their anti-clotting effect.
Growing evidence also suggests that consuming long
chain omega-3s has benefits beyond those achieved
when consuming shorter chain fatty acids. The United
Kingdom’s government Food Standards Agency recommends that oily fish be consumed at least once a
week.
There has been much interest in the effect of EPA
and DHA deficiency and supplementation on behavior
in children, particularly those with learning difficulties.
Although there is some evidence of benefit with EPA, in
2006 the U.K. Food Standards Agency concluded that
there was insufficient evidence to reach a firm conclusion and additional clinical trials were needed.
There is also interest in the anti-inflammatory properties of long chain omega-3s in inflammatory conditions such as Crohn’s disease and rheumatoid arthritis.
The role of omega-3s has been evaluated in treatment of
depression and prevention of cognitive decline but more
research is needed to confirm these benefits.
Omega-3 fats have been shown to reduce blood
pressure and triglyceride levels (another fat in the
blood that contributes to raising the risk of cardiovascular disease). To achieve these benefits, omega-3s
must be taken in pharmacological doses and there are
small risks associated with these high doses such as
raised LDL cholesterol, poor control of diabetes, and
increased risk of bleeding. Large doses of omega-3s
should only be taken under the supervision of a qualified medical doctor.
Trans fatty acids
Trans fatty acids are monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids where the double bond is in the
trans rather than cis formation. They occur naturally in
small amounts in lamb, beef, milk, and cheese as they
are created in the rumen of cows and sheep. The majority of trans fat in the diet comes from the partial hydrogenation of vegetable oils. This is a process in food
manufacture that adds hydrogen atoms to unsaturated
fatty acids so that oils become more hardened at room
temperature. The process results in some of the double
bonds of the fatty acid molecules becoming saturated
and some of the remaining double bonds changing
from a cis to a trans formation. For example, when
partially hydrogenated oleic acid becomes elaidic acid
or 9 trans-octadecenoic acid. Trans fats are semi-solid
at room temperature and more stable within food.
Partial hydrogenation of oils has traditionally been
used to develop spreading fats and margarines, for
fast food, and in cakes and biscuits. Manufacturers
are using it less because of the health problems associated with it. In 2006, New York City adopted the
United States’ first major ban on all but trace amounts
of artificial trans fats in restaurant cooking. As of July
2008, a serving of food must not contain more than half
a gram of trans fat. Food legislation in the United
States and the European Union states that hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated fats must be labeled in
the ingredients of food and in some cases the amounts
of trans fat must also be labeled.
TRANS FATTY ACIDS AND HEALTH. Trans fat raises
LDL cholesterol in a similar way to saturated fat and it
reduces HDL cholesterol. It may also raise blood triglyceride levels. The combination of both these effects
means that it is most likely to increase cardiovascular
risk. The World Health Organization recommends
phasing out trans fat in food manufacture and reducing trans fat consumption to no more than 1% of
dietary energy or 2.5 g per day.
Cholesterol
Cholesterol is essential to the structure of cell
membranes and production of bile acids for digestion,
steroid hormones, and vitamin D. Dietary cholesterol has little effect on blood cholesterol levels because an
increased dietary intake reduces the amount the body
produces. Only extreme dietary levels of cholesterol
need to be restricted. For most individuals, dietary
measures that reduce saturated fat also avoid excessive
cholesterol consumption. However, individuals with
familial hypercholesterolemia may need to consume
less than 300 mg/day, which requires avoidance of
most animal products.
The most concentrated dietary sources of cholesterol include liver, offal, and products made from egg
yolk, mayonnaise, fish roes, and shellfish.
Precautions :
The guidelines for the recommended levels of dietary fat is not appropriate for those under two years of
age, for those who are ill or malnourished, or for those
diagnosed with anorexia nervosa.
Parental concerns :
A study conducted by the International Study of
Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) found a
strong correlation between trans fatty acids and
increased occurrence of allergies in adolescents. Parents should provide healthy alternatives to foods
containing fatty acids and monitor the amount and
type of fats consumed in their diet. These preventative
measures help avoid serious health problems including
heart disease and stroke that can result from high
levels of fatty acids in the diet.
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